CHAPTER 6

6.1 GPS Observation Equations

	6.1.1 Carrier Beat Phase
	6.1.2 The Nature of GPS Observation Model Biases

6.2 Measurement Biases and Errors

	6.2.1 Introduction
	6.2.2 Satellite Clock Uncertainties
	6.2.3 Satellite Ephemeris Biases
	6.2.4 Selective Availability
	6.2.5 Receiver Clock Uncertainties
	6.2.6 Reference Station Bias
	6.2.7 Ionospheric Delay
	6.2.8 Tropospheric Delay
	6.2.9 Phase Ambiguity
	6.2.10 Comments on GPS Errors and Residual Biases
	6.2.11 Carrier Phase Cycle Slips
	6.2.12 Multipath Disturbance & Signal Interference
	6.2.13 Antenna Phase Centre Offset

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6.3 GPS Observation Modelling

	6.3.1 Introductory Remarks
	6.3.2 Eliminating GPS Biases Through Data Differencing
	6.3.3 Between-Satellite Differences
	6.3.4 Between-Station Differences
	6.3.5 Double-Difference Observable
	6.3.6 Triple-Difference Observable
	6.3.7 The Role and Merits of Various Phase Observables in GPS Adjustments
	6.3.8 Simultaneity Considerations for GPS Phase Data Reductions

6.4 Dual-Frequency Relations

	6.4.1 Introductory Remarks
	6.4.2 Ionosphere-Free Combination
	6.4.3 Geometry-Free or Ionosphere Combination
	6.4.4 "Wide-Lane" Combination
	6.4.5 "Narrow-Lane" Combination
	6.4.6 Other Dual-Frequency Phase Combinations
	6.4.7 Carrier Phase and Pseudo-Range Combinations
	6.4.8 Pseudo-Range & Phase Data Combinations for Ambiguity Determination
	6.4.9 Pseudo-Range & Phase Data Combinations for Multipath Studies
	6.4.10 General Form: Pseudo-Range & Phase Data "Ionosphere-Free" Combinations
	6.4.11 Using Carrier Phase Data to Smooth Pseudo-Range Data

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